Research & reports

Wei He-y · Chinese Landscape Architecture · United States

Motivated by the need for developing Chinese landscape architecture to draw on foreign experience, this paper analyzed the number, content, and trends of topics at the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) annual meetings from 2009 to 2012, with an in-depth discussion of the hotspots. The results show that the planning and design category had the highest proportion of topics, and that American landscape architecture focused on sustainable development, parks and gardening, rainwater harvesting, ecological theory, digital technology, urban plants, public open space, and urban agriculture. The pursuit of sustainable development and multidisciplinary integration emerged as a distinctive feature of American landscape architecture, and the paper uses these results to outline prospects for Chinese landscape architecture.

Vilmar Malacarne, Kely Cristina Enisweler · Educere et Educare · Brazil

A theoretical study (Educere et Educare, 2014), drawing on Delizoicov and Angotti (2000), Bizzo (2002), Ducatti-Silva (2005), and Ovigli and Bertucci (2009), examined how school gardens can support science teaching within early-elementary teacher education in Brazil. The paper argues gardens let teachers address topics such as pesticide contamination, growth cycles, soil characteristics, irrigation, and healthy eating. It concludes that school gardens are a useful tool for teachers, enabling science teaching and learning and deepening environmental education content, though the analysis is presented as a literature-based reflection rather than an empirical outcome measurement.

Rachel Brann, Keith Byron, Claire Sorvari Graupmann, Jay Kovach, Maria Val Martin, Emily Tucker · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · United States

A report and presentation on Rosemount urban agriculture's food producers and food production was completed by students enrolled in SUST 4004: Sustainable Communities, taught by Samantha Grover and Amir Nadav at the University of Minnesota in fall 2014; no further details of content or findings are given.

Po Anita Puckett, Nancy Lopez-Romero · Practicing Anthropology · United States

The opening section of this issue of Practicing Anthropology introduces new perspectives in community-based research. One contribution, Eisenberg's article "Social Science, Public Policy, and Amnesty for Chickens," discusses the leading role Pima County, Arizona played in developing urban agriculture in Tucson. Eisenberg led a Policy Team that provided other teams with policy information, educated them on processes, and helped negotiate environmental policy. Through initiatives including fact sheets, policy-information trainings, and workshops, the Policy Team helped develop a tentative plan for the Tucson zoning committee that included a distinct urban agriculture element, with the main focus on proper animal husbandry in urban settings. A Facebook page called "Tucson CLUCKS" was successfully created to keep residents informed and engaged in zoning policy discussions. Eisenberg concludes that a consistent, historically grounded understanding of local issues is an important requirement for effective action.

S. Guillaume · University of Minnesota Digital Conservancy (University of Minnesota) · United States

A description of the Aurora St. Anthony Peace Sanctuary Garden in the Summit-University (Rondo) and Frogtown neighborhoods of St. Paul, Minnesota, developed ten years earlier by African American community leaders as a tool for community building through gardening, and made up of a collaboration among six individual community gardens and backyard box gardeners. Through cultivating and sharing food, the project aims to promote reconciliation, healing, peace, and social and environmental justice, centering on the creation of a Neighborhood Garden Alliance meant to strengthen connections among the area's gardeners and gardens. The Alliance is intended to feed the neighborhood by empowering residents to grow their own food, meet and work with neighbors, share Rondo's food culture within families, and foster a stronger sense of ownership through a deepened connection to the land, serving as a vehicle for community building among diverse residents, expanded access to fresh food, and the engagement of new leaders through gardening.

Alexander Trutko · VTechWorks (Virginia Tech) · United States

A case study of the Common Good City Farm's Green Tomorrows program, a community-based urban agriculture and nutrition education program for residents of Washington, D.C., which aims to increase participants' food security, their ability to grow crops in urban locations, and their knowledge of nutrition, food preparation, and food budgeting. The study sought to understand how effectively the program achieved its intended goals and outcomes through semi-structured interviews with program staff and recent regular participants, in order to (1) identify similarities and differences between staff- and participant-stated program goals, (2) determine key program impacts, and (3) generate programmatic recommendations. Participants reported that the program's food distribution increased their consumption of produce, contributing to improved food security, along with greater knowledge of agricultural methods and healthy eating and an improved ability to prepare and shop for healthy food after completing the program. Overall, the Green Tomorrows program's outcomes aligned with staff and participant expectations and were reported to positively influence participants' food security, nutrition knowledge, food preparation, and food-budgeting skills.

Yuanchi Zhao · TigerPrints (Clemson University) · United States

A study proposing a new framework for designing privately owned public spaces (POPS) in mid-sized U.S. cities, noting that while POPS are established in large cities such as New York, San Francisco and Seattle, they remain uncommon in mid-sized ones. Drawing on case studies of 15 POPS in New York City, it identifies factors important to POPS development and produces design guidelines, which it then applies to a design example in downtown Greenville, South Carolina. The authors report that the results indicate the framework is feasible for mid-sized-city application.

Frederick Brokaw, Cierra Ford, Yiannis Kaparos, Patrick Schenkenberg, Ann Marie Votta · Digital WPI · United States

A project in East Kensington, Philadelphia, proposed a memorial community garden to the city to commemorate two firefighters who died there and to support community development. The project produced a design blueprint and cost assessment for the garden, framing it as a proposal that could positively affect residents and the environment by converting the vacant space into a green alternative. No implementation outcomes or measured effects are reported.

Matthew J. Hoffmann · Loyola eCommons (Loyola University of Chicago) · United States

A study of Chicago, United States, examines the experiences and perspectives of low-wage earners, job trainees, and Black youth participating in various urban sustainable development initiatives — including those tied to local food and urban agriculture. It notes that popular accounts of sustainability efforts have largely reflected the perspective of white, middle-class, college-educated volunteers and social entrepreneurs, and argues that such initiatives have historically benefited white middle-class people while sustainable development has in fact reproduced and worsened existing inequality for poor people of color. The study aims to inform debates in urban and environmental sociology about achieving more equitable distributions of power.

Barnidge E. K., Hipp P. R., Estlund A., Duggan K., Barnhart K. J., Brownson R. C. · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity 10:128 · United States

Survey study in rural Missouri. Community garden participants were significantly more likely than non-participants to eat fruit 2+ times and vegetables 3+ times daily after adjustment (OR=2.76).

Paul Joseph Draus, Juliette Roddy, Anthony McDuffie · Urban Studies · United States (Detroit)

Based on 20 qualitative interviews with people working or living in a heavily depopulated section of Detroit slated for an urban agriculture project, this paper examines residents' views of the project, which proposes using vacant land and marginalized residents to produce marketable products. Most respondents had little hope for neighborhood improvement and few expectations that urban agriculture would change daily life, viewing some efforts with suspicion. Drawing on concepts of advanced marginality and neighborhood effects, the authors argue idealistic urban agriculture efforts must do more to engage residents and address legacies of displacement.

Lauren Bugdalski, Lawrence D. Lemke, Shawn P. McElmurry · Risk Analysis · United States (Detroit, MI)

This study examined small-scale spatial variability of soil lead within a 15 × 30 m urban community garden plot on two adjacent residential lots in Detroit, Michigan, analyzing 80 samples for total, fine-fraction, and bioaccessible lead. Concentrations varied at 1–10 m scales with a hot spot exceeding 400 ppm, and Monte Carlo simulations showed that increasing sample numbers reduces the chance of missing hot spots while compositing reduces overestimation of the mean. The authors suggest US EPA sampling objectives and guidelines should be reconsidered for reclaimed city lots where soil lead is nonuniform.

Hoover B. · Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development · USA

Argues that urban agriculture, largely championed by a middle-class white populace, creates 'white spaces' within Black and Latino places, overlooking the practice's historical roots in those communities and producing exclusion.

In Kwon Park, Patricia Ciorici · International Journal of Urban Sciences · United States (Philadelphia)

This study in Philadelphia, United States, identified determinants of vacant lot conversion into community gardens using a logit model. Data on lot attributes were collected from the Philadelphia Neighbourhood Information System and a city-wide survey. The results indicate that neighborhood characteristics like poverty level, educational attainment, zoning, and owner occupancy, along with parcel characteristics such as ownership and topography, significantly impact the conversion.

Sam E. Wortman, Sarah Taylor Lovell · Journal of Environmental Quality · United States

This review paper characterized the limited state of scientific knowledge regarding abiotic environmental factors threatening the growth of urban agriculture in the United States. It identified challenges influencing urban cropping systems, including soil contamination and remediation, atmospheric pollutants and altered climatic conditions, and water management, sources, and safety. The development of a science-based approach in these areas is noted as essential for the economic and environmental sustainability of urban agriculture.

Christine Moon, Rachel Spinelli · DigitalCommons - CalPoly (California State Polytechnic University) · United States (California)

This project proposes to examine the relationship between school garden initiatives and the socioeconomic status of the community in California, United States. It plans to compare five elementary schools, using Pacheco Elementary School as a model, to explore how socioeconomic factors affect the success of garden projects and their community contributions. The study aims to address these research questions through comparative analysis.

Richard V. Tyson · Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society · United States

Orange County, FL, with a population of 1.2 million, is rapidly urbanizing. In 1998, 20,000 acres of local vegetable production ceased due to concerns about phosphorus-laden water discharges into Lake Apopka, shifting the county from a net exporter to an importer of vegetables. The Urban Farming Extension Education Program aims to identify, demonstrate, and encourage the adoption of sustainable agricultural production methods usable in and around urban centers to leverage local markets.

A. Bryan Endres, Rachel Armstrong · · United States

This article discusses Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) and 'community labor,' where customers participate in food production on farms. It highlights a paradox: traditional employment law, envisioning autonomous competition, makes little room for these novel relationships, potentially undermining CSA values and limiting its viability and growth. The authors suggest that employment law should develop a more nuanced view of relationships in the CSA context, supporting mutual gain and shared values over competition-based rules.

David Aftandilian, Lyn Dart · Journal of Community Engagement and Scholarship · United States

This article presents approaches for using garden-based service-learning to promote food justice, educate undergraduate students, and strengthen campus-community ties. It discusses three interdisciplinary service-learning projects: the Fairmount Community Garden, the North Side Garden Survey, and the Como Community Garden. The authors evaluate the success of their approaches using multiple measures and identify benefits for undergraduates, community partners, communities served by the gardens, educators, and their university.

Kyle Clark, Kimberly A. Nicholas · Landscape Ecology · United States (Burlington, Vermont)

This study proposes "urban food forestry" (UFF), combining urban agriculture, urban forestry, and agroforestry, to enhance urban sustainability and food security. It analyzed 37 urban food tree initiatives, finding 73% performed only one activity (planting, mapping, or harvesting) and 8% performed all three. An analysis of 30 urban forestry master plans showed only 13% included human food security objectives. A case study in Burlington, Vermont, estimated that planting Malus domestica in public spaces could meet 108% of the city's daily fruit intake under the most ambitious scenario. The study identified 70 potential food tree species for temperate urban environments, with 30 deemed highly suitable.

Jamie M. Bouvier · Maine law review · United States

This essay argues that urban agricultural practices, such as growing food or raising animals, are symbolic acts that communicate viewpoints and support for the "Food Movement." It asserts that these acts, as symbolic expressions, deserve protection under the First Amendment. The article examines the Food Movement as a social and political movement, how urban homesteading practices symbolize it, and the application of First Amendment principles to these practices.

Yuki Kato · Sociological Inquiry · United States (New Orleans)

This case study of a community-supported agriculture (CSA) organization in New Orleans focused on the lack of participation by local residents in the CSA market despite its intentions. Interview and ethnographic observation data indicated a general consensus on economic constraints, while some non-resident supporters attributed the issue to a lack of knowledge about the food system. Residents, however, pointed to spatial and sociocultural barriers, including produce selection, purchase options, market access convenience, and the race-related historical and spatial context of the market's location, making the market less accessible to them.

Naomi Hill · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign) · United States (Chicago)

This study investigated the effects of community gardens in impoverished inner-city African-American neighborhoods in Chicago. The research focused on five themes: how community gardens are created, their mission, motivations for involvement, contributions to individuals and the overall community, and envisioned futures. Results indicated that community gardens are established through collective efforts by community members and maintained through active participation and ongoing recruitment.

Ella Wise · Berkeley Planning Journal · United States

Frank Lloyd Wright's Broadacre City proposed a decentralized, agrarian landscape, which was reflected in post-WWII American suburbanization. However, the agrarian ethos of Broadacre City is absent from both suburbia and its alternatives. The rising interest in urban agriculture is argued to represent a demand to reconnect with the land, suggesting that planners should incorporate agrarian design into urban growth models.

Alison Nihart · ScholarWorks -A service of University of Vermont Libraries (University of Vermont) · United States (Burlington, VT)

This research analyzed urban agriculture governance in Burlington, VT, in coordination with the Urban Agriculture Task Force created in March 2011. Using a governance framework and participatory action research, it examined stakeholder needs, available policy tools, governance networks, and approaches in other cities. Over 50 policy recommendations were developed, highlighting the need to balance stakeholder needs, establish a legal basis for some aspects like livestock treatment, and partner with organizations for technical expertise.