Research & reports

Daniel Imhoff, Christina Badaracoo · Island Press/Center for Resource Economics eBooks · United States

This piece discusses the growth of the local food movement in the United States, describing consumers increasingly seeking organically grown fruits and vegetables and pasture-raised meat, eggs, and dairy, and using their food spending to support local economies, family farmers, and animal-welfare standards. It states that farmers markets and community gardens are becoming dynamic social hubs in urban areas and are pushing municipalities to change laws to allow more urban farming.

Zoë Plakias, Iryna Demko, Ani L. Katchova · Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems · United States

Using the 2015 Local Food Marketing Practices Survey, collected by the USDA in 2016, and binomial and multinomial logit regressions, this study examined which farm and farmer characteristics predict participation in direct marketing channels and the choice of particular channel combinations among US farmers. It found evidence of product-specific barriers to participation in certain channels: livestock producers were less likely than other farmers to sell directly to retailers, while vegetable farmers were less likely to sell to intermediaries. Beginning farmers were more likely than established farmers to sell directly to retailers but less likely to sell to intermediaries.

Antonella Samoggia, Chiara Perazzolo, Piroska Kocsis, Margherita Del Prete · Sustainability · United States

Drawing on data from 35 Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) farmers based in the United States and Hungary, this study used one-way ANOVA, chi-square tests, principal component analysis, and multiple multivariate linear regressions to examine how farmers perceive the benefits and drawbacks of managing a CSA farm, and whether that perception differs across the two countries. US and Hungarian farmers held broadly similar positive perceptions of CSA management, particularly regarding food quality, nutritional value, environmental benefits, and community benefits, while the main differences between the two groups centered on economic, financial, and management perceptions. The study concludes that CSA success depends on the ability to involve members, that farmers' management skills need to develop to sustain communication and community-engagement practices, and that the central concern for CSA is ensuring farmers and labor receive fair income and a living wage, requiring a better balance between monetary and non-monetary benefits.

Jillian Mickens · Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) · United States

A planning proposal for building a local food system in North Central North Carolina, United States, to increase food self-reliance. It notes there is no single accepted definition of "local food": the 2008 US Food, Conservation, and Energy Act treats products transported less than 400 miles from origin as locally or regionally produced, the book Animal, Vegetable, Miracle defines local as traveling less than 100 miles, Whole Foods defines it as within 7 hours' drive of a store, and Walmart defines it as grown and sold within the same state. It reports that US direct-to-consumer local food sales reached $1.2 billion in 2007, the number of farmers' markets grew from 1,755 in 1994 to 5,274 in 2009, community-supported agriculture (CSA) organizations grew from 2 in 1986 to 1,144 in 2005, and farm-to-school programs grew from 2 in 1996 to more than 2,095 in 2009.

トシオ キクチ, Toshio Kikuchi, 俊夫 菊地 · Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) · Canada

Focusing on community gardens in Metro Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, particularly in the city of Richmond, this study (2019) sought to clarify how urban agriculture's development is accompanied by the "commodification of rural space." It finds that Metro Vancouver's urban agriculture differs from suburban agriculture in that community gardens prioritize maintaining green and leisure space within the urban environment over agricultural production for food supply. The study concludes that community gardens function as a node connecting "urbanity" and "rurality," existing in the metropolitan periphery through a commodification of rural character for urban leisure use — that is, their role as green/leisure space for urban residents takes precedence over their function as actual food production.

Rachel Wimpee · Rockefeller Archive Center (RE:source) · United States

Published 1 November 2019, tracing the Ford Foundation's 1968 experiment in Program-Related Investments — $10 million authorised by its board — in the context of civil-rights-era support for Black entrepreneurship. It lent $500,000 to Leon Sullivan's Progress Plaza shopping centre in Philadelphia and generated a multiplier of roughly five dollars of outside investment for each Ford dollar. Yet some businesses failed and doubts surfaced early about whether foundations had the financial expertise required, raising the question of whether philanthropy should work inside the existing economic system or challenge it more directly.

Linda J. Young, Michael Hyman, Barbara R. Rater · Journal of Official Statistics · United States (Baltimore)

This pilot study explored a big-data approach to building a list frame for enumerating urban agriculture, which is challenging because urban agricultural holdings tend to be small, diverse, dispersed and transient. Conducted by USDA's National Agricultural Statistics Service in the City of Baltimore, it identified areas of potential agricultural activity by gathering web-based information (permits, Facebook and Twitter feeds, interest groups) and then verified a sample via in-person survey. The paper presents the pilot results and discusses lessons learned and next steps.

McClintock N. · Annals of the American Association of Geographers · USA

Demonstrates how urban agriculture becomes entangled in eco-gentrification, arguing that eco-gentrification is not merely a side effect of an urban sustainability fix but is central to how racial capitalism operates through green urbanization.

Jeremy Németh, Alessandro Rigolon · Cities · USA (Chicago, The 606)

Case study of Chicago's publicly-backed 606 greenway showing how reliance on park nonprofits to deliver large green-infrastructure projects accelerates environmental gentrification: the governance model disclaims responsibility for the displacement it causes.

Daniele Eckert Matzembacher, Fábio Bittencourt Meira · British Food Journal · Brazil

This exploratory case study investigated two Brazilian Community Supported Agriculture (CSA) initiatives over two years and six months using participant observation, ethnography, interviews, and secondary data. It found that the analyzed CSA activities integrate social, environmental, and economic sustainability dimensions, providing guaranteed sales and higher incomes for producers, and emphasizing sustainability education for consumers. The findings cannot be extrapolated to broader populations due to the exploratory nature of the study.

Nathan McClintock, Christiana Miewald, Eugene McCann · · North America

This chapter explores urban agriculture (UA) as fundamentally political practices, examining its role in neoliberal governance and sustainability policy-making, and as an object of contestation. It relates UA motivations and practices to processes of urbanization and political economic restructuring. The chapter highlights that UA is a site of political contestation, arising from broader political economic shifts.

Juliana Maantay, Andrew Maroko · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · United States (New York City)

This study examined whether proximity to community gardens in less affluent neighborhoods is associated with an increased likelihood of gentrification, using Brooklyn, New York as a case study. Employing GIS and spatial analysis, the results suggest that proximity to community gardens is associated with significant increases in per capita income over a five-year period. This indicates that environmental improvements, such as community gardens, may paradoxically spur gentrification and the displacement of existing lower-income residents, raising concerns for environmental justice.

Mark Paul · Journal of Agrarian Change · United States (Massachusetts)

This paper evaluates the livelihoods of Community-Supported Agriculture (CSA) farmers in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts from their perspective. Results indicate that while CSA farmers earn more farm income than other U.S. farms on average, they still earn far below the median national income and generally fail to earn a living wage. Despite these economic findings, farmers stressed the importance of broader social, ecological, and economic benefits to farming. The study concludes that CSA has largely failed to provide adequate livelihoods for farmers to date.

Zsofia Mendly‐Zambo, Dennis Raphael · Social Policy and Society · Canada

Household food insecurity (HFI) affects over 1.7 million Canadian households, yet government action to address it has been remarkably limited. Non-governmental efforts like food banks and community gardens have depoliticized HFI, complicating solutions. The study argues that the critical materialist political economy discourse, which is least considered, best explains HFI in Canada and offers the most effective response.

Sarah Lowndes · · United States (Detroit)

The extent of Detroit's economic problems was mired in secrecy prior to its bankruptcy declaration. Significant tensions persist regarding the city's future direction, exemplified by the ongoing saga of the half-built Wayne County jail. Simone DeSousa agreed that the growing significance of community gardens in Detroit has been an important part of residents re-imaging their city.

Gregory Astill, Darlington Sabasi, Johnson Gwatipedza, Astill, G., Sabasi, D., Gwatipedza, J. · AgEcon Search (University of Minnesota, USA) · United States

This study examined the relationship between direct marketing strategies and technical efficiency among U.S. farmers using stochastic frontier analysis. On average, farmers employing direct marketing strategies were found to be less technically efficient than those who do not. However, for the largest quantile of growers, direct marketing users were more technically efficient.

Gabrielle Roesch‐McNally, Jacqueline Ann Nester, Andrea Basche, Eric Christianson, Emily Zimmerman · Lincoln (University of Nebraska) · United States (Iowa)

Story County, Iowa, despite being in a highly agriculturally productive state, faces significant food insecurity. In 2014, 15.2% of its residents (nearly 14,000 individuals) were food insecure, with 45% of them not qualifying for government assistance. The county dedicates only 2.4 acres of cropland per thousand residents to fruit, vegetable, and nut production, significantly lower than the US average of 32 acres, highlighting a paradox of hunger amidst agricultural abundance.

Mitch Rose · Antipode · United States (Detroit)

This paper discusses the Detroit urban farming movement, conceptualizing the economy as an over-productive and wasteful system of energy exchange. It argues that the inefficient, redundant, and wasteful nature of urban farming in Detroit is an appropriation of potentialities within the general economy. The study highlights that diversity is not a result of positive relations but emerges from the prolific nature of the general economy.

Kate Gardner Burt, Marissa Burgermaster, Raquel Jacquez · Health Education & Behavior · United States (New York City)

This study aimed to determine the level of integration of school gardens and identify factors predicting integration. 211 New York City schools in the United States completed a survey, and the average garden integration score was 34.1 out of 57 points. Operating budget had a significant influence on the integration score, and partner organizations, evaluation/feedback, planning the physical space, and characteristics of the physical space were positively and significantly related to budget.

Rodrigo Clemente GOIS, Flamarion Dutra Alves, Evânio dos Santos Branquinho · Geografia (Rio Claro) · Brazil (Alfenas)

This article aims to characterize urban and peri-urban agricultural activities in Alfenas, Brazil, and analyze the encroachment of real estate speculation on these properties. It notes that Alfenas has seen an increase in residential developments occupying areas previously used for livestock and agriculture. The study suggests organic farming as a viable alternative to mitigate socio-environmental problems arising from this encroachment.

Clétina Inês de Brito Rodrigues, Rafael Pereira Barros, Iraci Fideles, João Victor de Brito Rodrigues, Genilson Tabosa Wanderley, Glicia Luiza nunes · Fórum de Integração Ensino, Pesquisa, Extensão e Inovação Tecnológica do IFRR - e-ISSN 2447-1208 · Brazil

This project aimed to encourage the Guariba indigenous community in Brazil to produce vegetables through a community garden, promoting food access and security, work opportunities, and income generation. Activities included environmental and social education, entrepreneurship, and healthy eating practices. The project involved over 20 participants and resulted in the construction of a community garden and training for community members and student interns.

Giulia Giacchè, Wania Rezende Silva · ARCHIVIO DI STUDI URBANI E REGIONALI · Brazil (São Paulo)

This article investigates the role of urban agriculture (UA) in reconfiguring urban spaces and promoting sustainable cities. A survey conducted in two urban gardens in São Paulo, Brazil, found that UA's individual and collective practices contribute to sustainable urban development by reducing social, economic, and environmental inequalities.

Daniel Calbino, I. Borges, Luis Antonio Andrade Rosas, C.T. Abreu, Fernanda Anziliero Gonçalves · COLÓQUIO - Revista do Desenvolvimento Regional · Brazil

This case study in Sete Lagoas, Brazil, discusses the advances and challenges of agroecological urban community gardens, which have a history of approximately 33 years. Research findings indicate that public policy enables income generation for producers, increased supply, and food security in the region. However, the study highlights the need for greater support to address producers' limited technical knowledge and the importance of more supportive interpersonal relationships.

Abigail R Hughes · Graduate Medical Education Research Journal · United States (Omaha)

This project aimed to provide The Big Garden, an Omaha, NE-based nonprofit, with survey data on the growth, needs, and capacity of its supported community gardens over five years. A census survey was distributed to all gardens in their network to collect data on characteristics, production practices, support needed, community involvement, programming, barriers, facilitators, impact, and capacity. The collected data, analyzed using descriptive statistics, is intended to inform the organization's future planning.

Angelina Moreira Melo, Daniel Calbino, Yuri Gomes Figueiredo, Fabiola Paulino da Silva, E. R. de O. Carvalho · Cadernos de Agroecologia · Brazil

This empirical work, based on participatory research, analyzed the social relations between producers of the Vapabucu community garden in Sete Lagoas, Brazil, and municipal public support organs. Research results indicate that while agroecological knowledge has advanced significantly in the technical dimension of agronomic production, the social relations among producers still show contradictions inherent to agroecological assumptions.