Research & reports

· Wikipedia (English) · Cuba

According to English Wikipedia, organoponicos emerged as urban farming in Cuba during the 'Special Period' after the 1989 Soviet collapse cut off chemical inputs, responding to a food crisis in which daily per-capita calorie intake fell from 2,900 in 1989 to 1,800 by 1995. As of 2009 over 35,000 hectares were in use in Havana alone, producing 280 grams of fruit and vegetables per resident per day, with the Havana workforce growing from 9,000 in 1999 to 23,000 in 2001 and over 44,000 by 2006.

· Wikipedia · Japan

This Wikipedia article on night soil describes how, in the city of Edo, compost merchants gathered feces to sell to farmers, and that human excreta of rich people were sold at higher prices because their better diet presumably left more nutrients in it. Various historic documents detailing toilet-waste disposal procedures date from as early as the 9th century. The article states that after World War II the practice declined rapidly due to sanitation concerns and the spread of chemical fertilizer, and that today less than 1% of human waste is used for night soil fertilization.

ローカルフードサイクリング株式会社 · ローカルフードサイクリング株式会社 · Japan

The official site of LFC Compost, a bag-based home composting product for kitchen scraps operated by Local Food Cycling Inc., part of the Borderless Group. Users simply 'add' food waste and 'lightly mix' it to compost, with support via LINE chat, balcony-gardening classes, and compost consultation/collection events also offered. Its subscription compost-set product has received 1,016 reviews with a 4.51/5 rating.

Santropol Roulant · Santropol Roulant · Canada

Santropol Roulant's rooftop farm in Montreal's Plateau neighbourhood combines intensive garden beds with container gardening and keeps beehives. Produce grown there feeds the organization's meals-on-wheels kitchen, and kitchen scraps are composted in the basement and returned to the rooftop farm, forming a closed food-waste loop.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) · U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) · United States

This EPA page explains composting: food waste is responsible for 58% of landfill methane emissions and makes up 24.1% of municipal solid waste. Of the 66.2 million tons of food waste generated in the US in 2019, only 5% was composted. Compost adds organic matter and boosts soil microbial diversity, reduces reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and — because it is typically processed near where it is generated — supports local economies.

· Wikipedia · Global

The Wikipedia article on compost describes it as a mixture used as plant fertilizer that improves soil's physical, chemical and biological properties, made by decomposing plant/food waste and manure. It requires four elements — carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and water — with an optimal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of about 25:1. About 20% of landfill waste is compostable material such as food, and composting reduces methane emissions compared to landfilling organic material.

· Wikipedia · South Korea

This Wikipedia article on recycling in South Korea (the URL 'Food_waste_in_South_Korea' redirects here) describes a pay-as-you-throw system requiring households to buy designated bags for general waste separate from food waste. The food-waste recycling rate rose from 2% in 1995 to 95% by 2013. Per-capita food waste generation exceeds 130 kg/year, and RFID-enabled smart bins reduced food waste by 47,000 tonnes over six years. South Korea's overall recycling rate reached 59% in 2013, the second-highest among OECD countries; daily household waste fell from 1.3 kg (1994) to 0.94 kg (2013) while the recycled share rose from 15.3% to 83.2%.

· Wikipedia · Taiwan

This Wikipedia article on waste management in Taiwan describes a recycling programme that began in 1989 following a 1987 amendment to the Waste Disposal Act, with the 3R Foundation established in 1994. There are 33 recyclable items across 13 categories; raw food waste is processed into fertilizer for farmers while cooked food waste is converted into livestock feed. As of August 2023, 25 large-scale incineration plants operate, 22 publicly owned (5 publicly operated, 17 privately operated) and 3 privately owned and operated. In 2016, 76.8% of fly ash from coal-fired power plants (1.703 million tons) was reused in construction.

· Wikipedia · Global

A Wikipedia article on terra preta, a fertile anthropogenic dark soil found across the Amazon Basin, formed between 450 BCE and 950 CE and rich in low-temperature charcoal and pottery shards. It notes black carbon content reaching up to 9% (versus 0.5% in surrounding soils), depths of up to 2 meters, a regeneration rate of about 1 centimeter per year, an estimated coverage of 0.1-0.3% (6,300 to 18,900 square kilometres) of the Amazon Basin, and modern biochar-based attempts to recreate it.

· Wikipedia · Global

A Wikipedia article on Mycobacterium vaccae, a non-pathogenic soil bacterium first cultured from cattle dung and also isolated from soil in Lang'o District, Uganda. It cites research in which heat-killed bacteria injected into mice raised serotonin levels and lowered anxiety, and live bacteria led mice to navigate a maze twice as fast with less anxious behavior. It also notes a meta-analysis of 54 clinical trials finding improved sputum conversion and radiological outcomes in tuberculosis treatment, and a 2019 study finding a lipid from the bacterium blocks several pro-inflammatory pathways in immune cells.

Gao, Si, Burce, Katrina, Smith, Laney, Espinoza, Nina, Melbourne, Alfred · Frontiers in Soil Science · 米国（カリフォルニア州ウェスト・サクラメント）

Urban agriculture soils are commonly amended with compost, yet how such systems respond functionally to biochar across application rates is poorly understood. In a field experiment at Three Sisters Gardens (West Sacramento, CA, USA), biochar was applied at 0, 10, 20 and 30 t/ha to compost-amended plots under corn and squash, and late-season soils were analysed for physical, chemical and biological indicators. Intermediate rates (10–20 t/ha) improved aggregate stability and increased soil respiration; the highest rate (30 t/ha) produced the strongest biological responses, including higher microbial biomass, fungal:bacterial ratios and extracellular enzyme activities in nitrogen and phosphorus cycling. Soil pH and cation exchange capacity did not differ significantly among treatments. Regression analyses indicated nutrient availability was more strongly associated with microbial indicators than with bulk soil chemistry, consistent with microbial mediation of biochar-associated nutrient dynamics, and the patterns held broadly across both cropping systems.

Irigoyen I., López M., Orden L., Moral R., Nogués I., Bustamante M.Á. · Agronomy · Europe (urban agriculture focus)

June 2025 study examining how decentralized and community composting are emerging as novel scenarios favoring localized management and valorization of organic waste streams. Supports organic waste reduction at community level and nutrient cycling for urban agriculture fertilization, offering alternatives to centralized composting.

Shimelis G., Kim D., Yimer F., Tadesse M. · Science of The Total Environment · Africa (Ethiopia)

2025 study estimating compost production potential from municipal organic waste and human excreta in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with projections through 2050. Quantifies economic benefits (compost sales, fertilizer cost reduction), soil carbon sequestration, and greenhouse gas mitigation. Demonstrates feasibility of organic waste-to-compost systems for urban agriculture in African cities.

· Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems · North America (Sacramento, California, USA)

Field research conducted at two urban farms in Sacramento, California, USA. Investigates effects of locally produced compost and biochar amendments on soil health and plant nutrient uptake. Demonstrates feasibility of combining sustainable resource cycling with crop productivity in community-based urban agriculture systems.

Campbell C., Gusto C., Kelsey K.D., Haase H., Cohen N., Robertson K., Kiker G., Boz Z. · Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 14(2):9-26 · United States

A study in which 107 participants in a municipal community compost program in Gainesville, Florida, used a citizen-science approach to measure and record their household food waste for two weeks. Participants generated more than double the EPA's estimate (about 14 lb/week), yet 85.8% reported increased food-waste awareness and 71.5% reported reducing their waste, showing that community composting can nudge household food-loss reduction.

Leigh Whittinghill, Megan Goins, Shawn Lucas · HortScience · United States

This study examined how two urban agriculture production systems (raised beds and container plots) and four nutrient-management treatments (conventional fertilizer, organic fertilizer, peat-and-compost plus organic fertilizer, and peat-and-compost only) affected yields of relay-cropped leafy greens across the 2018–2019 seasons. Significant differences between systems and treatments were few and inconsistent, but results suggest small plastic-pool containers are suitable for urban greens production and tentatively support organic fertilizers and compost as a nutrient source.

· International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology · Global

Proposes a household-scale vermicomposting bin using Perionyx excavatus to both treat domestic organic waste and grow vegetables; adding a ventilation pipe improved performance.

· Scientific Reports · Global

Compares different bulking agents for speeding up the composting process of household kitchen waste.

· Turkish Journal of Agriculture - Food Science and Technology · Turkey

Produces bokashi compost by fermenting vegetable and fruit wastes with lacto serum and bran in vacuum buckets for 28 days, then characterizes the resulting compost.

· Science Direct · Global (technology focus)

Composting the organic fraction of municipal solid waste enables recycling nutrient-rich by-products as agricultural substrates. For rooftop farming, integrating biochar with compost-based media enhances productive capacity. Supports nutrient recycling between urban residents and agriculture, contributing to sustainable urban ecosystems.

Donthi R. B. R., Ramannagari B. · Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management · Anantapur, India

Based on a door-to-door survey of 110 households in Anantapur, India, biodegradable waste exceeded 70% of total waste and 88% favoured source segregation, supporting decentralized composting as a low-cost complement to centralized systems.

Sustainable Waste Management Research Group · Global NEST Journal · Global

Evaluates various urban composting methods (traditional, vermicomposting, aerobic systems) for process efficiency and compost quality. Documents emergence of decentralized community composting in circular economy context.

Sriyanto Sriyanto, Eva Banowati, Edi Kurniawan, Fikri Amrullah, Ervando Tommy Al-Hanif · Society Jurnal Pengabdian dan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat · Indonesia (Karimunjawa)

This participatory urban farming program in Karimunjawa, Indonesia, aimed to improve community welfare and food security by empowering village women and youth to utilize their yards. Through socialization, training, and mentoring in techniques like polybag farming and composting, the program increased community farming skills. Evaluation via surveys, interviews, and observations showed most participants successfully applied techniques, producing food for consumption and experiencing economic benefits and improved food availability.

Leonardo Ferreira da Silva, Maria Laura Fogaça Zei, Juliana Alcantara Fernandes, João Moreirão, Fernando Camilher Almeida · Dialnet (Universidad de la Rioja) · Brazil

This article presents the Vila dos Heróis reurbanization project in Brazil as an integrated urban intervention model for informal settlements, based on a qualitative case study. The project includes 84 housing units with sustainable infrastructure such as a floodable park, photovoltaic energy, water reuse, composting, and a community garden. The proposal demonstrates the viability of reurbanization models that integrate qualified technical planning, community leadership, and socio-environmental sustainability.

Yogita Yogita, Ashutosh Kumar, Robin Kumar, Subhash Chander Verma, Abhay Saini, J. C. Das, Rajnish Kumar, Manjul Jain · Journal of Scientific Research and Reports · Global

This review discusses various sustainable practices in urban horticulture, including vertical gardening, hydroponics, aquaponics, rooftop gardening, composting, and rainwater harvesting. It analyzes the benefits and limitations of these strategies, highlighting their effects on urban ecology, climate resilience, socio-economic well-being, and environmental conservation. The review concludes with recommendations for policy integration, technological innovation, and public participation to enhance the sustainability of urban horticulture.